Lymphocyte B Cell In The Immune System Biology Essay

Lymphocyte B Cell In The Immune System Biology Essay B cell is a type of lymphocyte that is the basis for the bodys humoral immune system; it is produced from the stem cell in the bone marrow (Darling, 2010). On its production a self renewing hematopoietic stem cells produces lymphoid and myeloid progenitor. Looking mainly at lymphoid progenitor, it gives rise to B cell progenitor, T cell progenitor and Natural Killer cells (Kuby et al. 2007, p.25). Lymphoid progenitor produces progenitor B cells; it is the earliest identifiable cell thats committed to the development in the B cell linage. The cells moves and rearrange their Ig heavy chain genetic segments to make a functional IgH gene that are expressed as pre B cell receptors. The B cell receptor is a membrane bound antibody molecule. From the pre B cell receptor, some of the cells stays in the bone marrow and some moves into secondary lymphoid organs and there they reproduce, also in the secondary lymphoid organs the cells undergo antigen dependent maturation. On the topic of B cell progenitor, it produces B cell and these B cells further undergo two phases of maturation: an antigen independent phase and an antigen dependent phase (Kempert, 2010). During the development, each B cell is genetically programmed or a process known as gene translocation, to express a unique B cell receptor. The molecules of that B cell receptor are place on its surface where it can react with epitopes of an antigen (Kaiser, 2010) Epitopes are antigenic determinants recognized and bound with B cell receptors and they are located on the surface of the antigen (Austin, 2010). There are known to be two main classes of B cell epitopes, one is Linear or continuous, the surface that are interacted with the antibody are located next to each other sequentially on the protein. The second one is assembled or discontinuous; the components are located on disparate parts of the protein which are brought conformationally close to each other through side chain interactions (ProImmune, 2010). Produced B cells contain two types of B lymphocytes, Plasma cells and memory cells which express CD19, CD20 and CD21 on these cells (Kempert, 2010). Plasma cells are a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. Once produced, B cells mainly stay within the bone marrow and wait until an antigen invades the body. The antigens bind to the B cell and stimulate it to form plasma cells. Plasma cells are known to have characteristic appearing nuclei; cytoplasm that contains dense rough endoplasmic reticulum and which is the site where antibodies are combined and also a distinctive perinuclear Golgi complexes where the antibody molecules are converted to their final forms and ready for secretion (Abbas et al. 2009, p. 22). Memory cells are produced by antigen stimulation of naà ¯ve B cells, they have proteins that are expressed on their surface that distinguish them from B cells and Plasma cells and they can survive in a functionally state for many years after the antigen has been eliminated and also they are known as B cell sub types that are formed after an initial infection (Abbas et al. 2009, p. 22). Function The major function of B cell is the secretion of antibodies. When an antigen has invades the body and has been encountered by the immune system, they bind to B cell and a number of certain B lymphocyte are then stimulated and undergo cell division to produce plasma cell and memory cells which is known as clonal expansion. Clonal expansion is a process that when a naà ¯ve B cell encounter a pathogens antigen. As the antigen floats through the blood system it gets attaches and binds to the naà ¯ve B cells. This trigger clonal expansion and the B cells multiples (Kuby et al. 2007, p.17). The B cell receptors are the ones responsible to bind to the antigens, the bounded antigen is then engulfed into the B cell by the receptor mediated endocytosis. The antigen are digested and broken down into small fragments and displayed on the cell surface thats sitting inside a class II Histocompatibility molecule. With the help of Helper T cells that binds with B cells, the B cells then secretes lymphokines that stimulates the B cells to go through a cell cycle that develops and turn the B cells from being B cell receptors to being a plasma cell that secrete antibodies(Kimball, 2010). The plasma cell each produces a particular antibody thats specifically attached to a specific antigen and these plasma cells are secreted into the blood system. As a specific antibody has attached to a specific antigen, the antibodies produce a humoral response and inactivate the pathogen, and make it easier to removal from the body (Anglin, 2010). Once this process has occurred meaning once the body defense has encountered and destroyed the pathogens antigen, the body remember this pathogens antigen and this remembering process is referred to as Memory cell. Memory cells are produced by stimulated B cells, they are the form of basis for long term immunity and responsible for secondary response. As soon as an infection that was previously destroyed by the humoral immune system returns the memory cells that has remain dormant produce a quick response and the infection is removed as quickly and effectively leaving the patient immune (Martin, 2010).

The Opportunities for Excellence :: Philosophy of Teaching Education Essays

The Opportunities for Excellence Like many other students in the public school system, I had my share of â€Å"good† teachers and â€Å"bad† teachers, but I learned valuable things from each of them: from the â€Å"good† teachers, inspiration to enter education and how to be a good teacher, from the â€Å"bad† teachers, if nothing else, what not to be. As important as education is to children’s success in life, they should have as many positive influences as possible. I will strive to be the best teacher I can be, not only to be marked as one of the â€Å"good†, but one of the â€Å"great† teachers of education. As a student, I found the â€Å"good† teachers to be those that went the extra mile to help children fulfill individual interests. Sponsorship of clubs and organizations, home visits, etc. have been traditional methods of supplementing education, but computers and the Internet have given rise to many new avenues, such as e-mail correspondence and more powerful, contemporary research information. Recent coordination of colleges and high schools has also provided students interested in attending college the opportunity to advance their pursuits in continued education by allowing them to correlate their high school classes with the college curriculum for dual credit. I will use these tools, along with many others, to heighten the educational experience for my students. I also recall my â€Å"good† teachers as moral role models. Their upstanding character, fairness and general nature were reflected in their students, as will the traits of future teachers for many years to come. Also, the trend continues for children to have less and less influence at home, be it due to non-traditional families, both parents working, etc. Even more, a greater diversity of classroom ethnicity introduces a broader set of values, and further challenges teachers to be open to other cultures. They are also given the responsibility of enculturation, conveying the appreciation of other cultures to their students. This can amount to as little as contribution and additive methods, appending other cultures’ ideas into core philosophy, to as much as transformation or social action, integrating other cultures into the curriculum as part of the norm. All of these factors leave a greater weight of shaping children’s mindset on teachers. As an upcoming educator, I feel a great responsibility to maintain respectability and general good character as a positive example for my students.

Ralph Waldo Emerson Essay

Note: Nineteenth Century American Transcendentalism is not a religion (in the traditional sense of the word); it is a pragmatic philosophy, a state of mind, and a form of spirituality. It is not a religion because it does not adhere to the three concepts common in major religions: a. a belief in a God; b. a belief in an afterlife (dualism); and c. a belief that this life has consequences on the next (if you’re good in this life, you go to heaven in the next, etc. ). Transcendentalism is monist; it does not reject an afterlife, but its emphasis is on this life. The Assumed, Presumed, or the Self-Identified Transcendentalists: Central Points of Agreement: NOTE: The Transcendentalists, in keeping with the individualistic nature of this philosophy, disagreed readily with each other. Here are four points of general agreement: Basic Assumption: The intuitive faculty, instead of the rational or sensical, became the means for a conscious union of the individual psyche (known in Sanskrit as Atman) with the world psyche also known as the Oversoul, life-force, prime mover and God (known in Sanskrit as Brahma). Basic Premises: 1. An individual is the spiritual center of the universe – and in an individual can be found the clue to nature, history and, ultimately, the cosmos itself. It is not a rejection of the existence of God, but a preference to explain an individual and the world in terms of an individual. 2. The structure of the universe literally duplicates the structure of the individual self – all knowledge, therefore, begins with self-knowledge. This is similar to Aristotle’s dictum â€Å"know thyself. † 3. Transcendentalists accepted the neo-Platonic conception of nature as a living mystery, full of signs – nature is symbolic. 4. The belief that individual virtue and happiness depend upon self-realization – this depends upon the reconciliation of two universal psychological tendencies: a. the expansive or self-transcending tendency – a desire to embrace the whole world – to know and become one with the world. b. the contracting or self-asserting tendency – the desire to withdraw, remain unique and separate – an egotistical existence. Correspondence. It is a concept which suggests that the external is united with the internal. Physical or material nature is neutral or indifferent or objective; it is neither helpful nor hurtful; it is neither beautiful nor ugly. What makes one give such attributes to nature is that individual’s imposition of her/his temperament or mood or psyche. If I’m feeling lousy, I may dismiss a gorgeous day; if I’m feeling bright and cheerful then the most dreary of days becomes tolerable. And so, the Transcendentalists believed that â€Å"knowing yourself† and â€Å"studying nature† is the same activity. Nature mirrors our psyche. If I cannot understand myself, may be understanding nature will help. Here is Darrel Abel’s â€Å"take† on this concept: â€Å"Since one divine character was immanent everywhere in nature and in man, man’s reason could discern the spiritual ideas in nature and his senses could register impressions of the material forms of nature. To man the subject, nature the object, which shared the same divine constitution as himself, presented external images to the innate ideas in his soul. † (American Literature, Vol. 2, 1963, 4-5. ) Transcendentalism and the American Past. Transcendentalism as a movement is rooted in the American past: To Puritanism it owed its pervasive morality and the â€Å"doctrine of divine light. † It is also similar to the Quaker â€Å"inner light. † However, both these concepts assume acts of God, whereas intuition is an act of an individual. In Unitarianism, deity was reduced to a kind of immanent principle in every person – an individual was the true source of moral light. To Romanticism it owed the concept of nature as a living mystery and not a clockwork universe (deism) which is fixed and permanent. A subtle chain of countless rings The next unto the farthest brings; The eye reads omens where it goes, And speaks all languages the rose; And, striving to be man, the worm Mounts through all the spires of form. – Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature, 1836 Transcendentalism was a 1. spiritual, 2. philosophical and 3. literary movement and is located in the history of American Thought as (a). Post-Unitarian and free thinking in religious spirituality (b). Kantian and idealistic in philosophy and (c). Romantic and individualistic in literature. A Brief Chronology of Events. †¢ 1832 Emerson resigns the ministry of the Unitarian Church – unable to administer the holy communion. †¢ 1836 The annus mirabilis of the movement, during which Emerson published Nature (the â€Å"gospel† of transcendentalism); George Ripley published Discourses on the Philosophy of Religion; Orestes Brownson published New Views of Christianity, Society, and Church; Bronson Alcott published Record of Conversions in the Gospel (based on classroom discussions in his Temple School in Boston, and provoking severe criticism); the Transcendental Club, also known as Hedge’s Club, met for the first time. †¢ 1837 Emerson delivers his Phi Beta Kappa address on â€Å"The American Scholar† at Harvard, which James Russell Lowell called â€Å"an event without former parallel in our literary annals. † †¢ 1838 Emerson delivers his Divinity School Address at Harvard which touched off a great storm in religious circles. †¢ 1840 The founding of the Dial, a Transcendental magazine, which â€Å"enjoyed its obscurity,† to use Emerson’s words, for four years. †¢ 1841 The launching of George Ripley’s Brook Farm – a utopian experiment. Hawthorne was a resident there for a short time and wrote The Blithedale Romance based upon his experience there. †¢ 1842 Alcott’s utopian experiment at Fruitlands. †¢ 1845 Thoreau goes to live at Walden Pond. †¢ 1846 Thoreau is put in jail for his refusal to pay poll tax. †¢ 1850 Passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. The Transcendentalists found themselves increasingly involved in abolition of slavery. †¢ 1855 Walt Whitman publishes his Leaves of Grass. †¢ 1859 Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species is published. †¢ 1862 Henry David Thoreau dies. Basic Tenets of American Transcendentalism: Note: This list must not be considered to be a creed common to all transcendentalists. It is merely a grouping of certain important concepts shared by many of them. †¢ 1. Transcendentalism, essentially, is a form of idealism. †¢ 2. The transcendentalist â€Å"transcends† or rises above the lower animalistic impulses of life (animal drives) and moves from the rational to a spiritual realm. †¢ 3. The human soul is part of the Oversoul or universal spirit (or â€Å"float† for Whitman) to which it and other souls return at death. †¢ 4. Therefore, every individual is to be respected because everyone has a portion of that Oversoul (God). †¢ 5. This Oversoul or Life Force or God can be found everywhere – travel to holy places is, therefore, not necessary. 6. God can be found in both nature and human nature (Nature, Emerson stated, has spiritual manifestations). †¢ 7. Jesus also had part of God in himself – he was divine as everyone is divine – except in that he lived an exemplary and transcendental life and made the best use of that Power which is within each one. †¢ 8. â€Å"Miracle is monster. † The miracles of the Bible are not to be regarded as important as they were to the people of the past. Miracles are all about us – the whole world is a miracle and the smallest creature is one. â€Å"A mouse is a miracle enough to stagger quintillions of infidels. † – Whitman †¢ 9. More important than a concern about the afterlife, should be a concern for this life – â€Å"the one thing in the world of value is the active soul. † – Emerson †¢ 10. Death is never to be feared, for at death the soul merely passes to the oversoul. †¢ 11. Emphasis should be placed on the here and now. â€Å"Give me one world at a time. † – Thoreau †¢ 12. Evil is a negative – merely an absence of good. Light is more powerful than darkness because one ray of light penetrates the dark. †¢ 13. Power is to be obtained by defying fate or predestination, which seem to work against humans, by exercising one’s own spiritual and moral strength. Emphasis on self-reliance. †¢ 14. Hence, the emphasis is placed on a human thinking. †¢ 15. The transcendentalists see the necessity of examples of great leaders, writers, philosophers, and others, to show what an individual can become through thinking and action. †¢ 16. It is foolish to worry about consistency, because what an intelligent person believes tomorrow, if he/she trusts oneself, tomorrow may be completely different from what that person thinks and believes today. â€Å"A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds. † – Emerson †¢ 17. The unity of life and universe must be realized. There is a relationship between all things. †¢ 18. One must have faith in intuition, for no church or creed can communicate truth. †¢ 19. Reform must not be emphasized – true reform comes from within. Reasons for the Rise of American Transcendentalism There was no one precise â€Å"cause† for the beginning of Transcendentalism. According to Paul Boller, chance, coincidence and several independent events, thoughts and tendencies seemed to have converged in the 1830s in New England. Some of these were: †¢ 1. The steady erosion of Calvinism. †¢ 2. The progressive secularization of modern thought under the impact of science and technology. †¢ 3. The emergence of a Unitarian intelligentsia with the means, leisure, and training to pursue literature and scholarship. †¢ 4. The increasing insipidity and irrelevance of liberal religion to questing young minds – lack of involvement in women’s rights and abolitionism. †¢ 5. The intrusion of the machine into the New England garden and the disruption of the old order by the burgeoning industrialism. †¢ 6. The impact of European ideas on Americans traveling abroad. †¢ 7. The appearance of talented and energetic young people like Emerson, Fuller, and Thoreau on the scene. †¢ 8. The imperatives of logic itself for those who take ideas seriously – the impossibility, for instance, of accepting modern science without revising traditional religious views. Important ideas from: Warren, Robert Penn, Cleanth Brooks, and R. W. B. Lewis. â€Å"A National Literature and Romantic Individualism. † in Romanticism. eds. James Barbour and Thomas Quirk. NY: Garland, 1986, 3-24. 1. Transcendentalism was a philosophical, literary, social, and theological movement. 2. Its origin is traced to the relaxing of Puritan Calvinism into Unitarianism – a belief very much like Deism. From its early liberalism, Unitarianism developed, for some of the young intellectuals, into â€Å"a new orthodoxy of smug social conformity that denied the spiritual and emotional depths of experience – ‘corpse-cold Unitarianism,’ as Emerson was to call it. † (11) 3. German and English Romanticism provided some inspiration towards the search for some deeper ‘truth. ‘ 4. â€Å"Transcendentalism represented a complex response to the democratization of American life, to the rise of science and the new technology, and to the new industrialism – to the whole question, in short, of the redefinition of the relation of man to nature and to other men that was being demanded by the course of history. † (11-12) 5. Influences: a. From Plato came the idealism according to which reality subsists beyond the appearances of the world. Plato also suggests that the world is an expression of spirit, or mind, which is sheer intelligibility and therefore good. b. From Immanuel Kant came the notion of the ‘native spontaneity of the human mind’ against the passive conception of the 18th c. sensational theory (also known as the philosophy of empiricism of John Locke and David Hume; the concept that the mind begins as a tabula rasa and that all knowledge develops from sensation). c. From Coleridge came the importance of wonder, of antirationalism, and the importance of individual consciousness. d. From Puritanism came the ethical seriousness and the aspect of Jonathan Edwards that suggested that an individual can receive divine light immediately and directly. 6. â€Å"Transcendentalism was, at its core, a philosophy of naked individualism, aimed at the creation of the new American, the self-reliant man, complete and independent. † (22) 7. â€Å"The achievement of the transcendentalists has a grandeur. They did confront, and helped define, the great issues of their time, and if they did not resolve those issues, we of the late twentieth century, who have not yet resolved them, are in no position to look down our noses at their effort. † (23) Towards a Definition of Transcendentalism: A Few Comments: from Henry David Gray, Emerson: A Statement of N. E. Transcendentalism as Expressed in the Philosophy of Its Chief Exponent, 1917 1. â€Å"The spirit of the time is in every form a protest against usage and a search for principles. † – Emerson in the opening number of The Dial. 2. â€Å"I was given to understand that whatever was unintelligible would be certainly Transcendental. † – Charles Dickens in American Notes 3. â€Å"I should have told them at once that I was a transcendentalist. That would have been the shortest way of telling them that they would not understand my explanations. † – Thoreau, Journal, V:4 4. â€Å"The word Transcendentalism, as used at the present day, has two applications. One of which is popular and indefinite, the other, philosophical and precise. In the former sense it describes man, rather than opinions, since it is freely extended to those who hold opinions, not only diverse from each other, but directly opposed. † – Noah Porter, 1842 5. Transcendentalism is the recognition in man of the capacity of knowing truth intuitively, or of attaining a scientific knowledge of an order of existence transcending the reach of the senses, and of which we can have no sensible experience. † – J. A. Saxton, Dial II: 90 6. â€Å"Literally a passing beyond all media in the approach to the Deity, Transcendentalism contained an effort to establish, mainly by the discipline of the intuitive faculty, direct intercourse between the soul and God. † – Charles J. Woodbury in Talks with Ralph Waldo Emerson 7. â€Å"Transcendentalism was not †¦ speculative, but essentially practical and reformatory. † – John Orr in â€Å"The Transcendentalism of New England,† International Review, XIII: 390 8. â€Å"Transcendentalism was a distinct philosophical system. Practically it was an assertion of the inalienable worth of man; theoretically it was an assertion of the immanence of divinity in instinct, the transference of supernatural attributes to the natural constitution of mankind. †¦ Transcendentalism is usually spoken of as a philosophy. It is more justly regarded as a gospel. As a philosophy it is †¦ so far from uniform, that it may rather be considered several systems than one. †¦ Transcendentalism was †¦ an enthusiasm, a wave of sentiment, a breath of mind. † – O. B. Frothingham in Transcendentalism in New England, 1876 9. â€Å"The problem of transcendental philosophy is no less than this, to revise the experience of mankind and try its teachings by the nature of mankind, to test ethics by conscience, science by reason; to try the creeds of the churches, the constitution of the states, by the constitution of the universe. † – Theodore Parker in Works VI: 37 10. â€Å"We feel it to be a solemn duty to warn our readers, and in our measure, the public, against this German atheism, which the spirit of darkness is employing ministers of the gospel to smuggle in among us under false pretenses. † Princeton Review XII: 71 11. â€Å"Protestantism ends in Transcendentalism. † – Orestes Brownson in Works, 209 12. â€Å"The fundamentals of Transcendentalism are to be felt as sentiments, or grasped by the imagination as poetical wholes, rather than set down in propositions. † – Cabot, A Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1887, I: 248 13. â€Å"First and foremost, it can only be rightly conceived as an intellectual, aesthetic, and spiritual ferment, not a strictly reasoned doctrine. It was a renaissance of conscious, living faith in the power of reason, in the reality of spiritual insight, in the privilege, beauty, and glory of life. † – Frances Tiffany, â€Å"Transcendentalism: The New England Renaissance,† Unitarian Review, XXXI: 111. 14. â€Å"The Transcendentalist adopts the whole connection of spiritual doctrine. †¦ If there is anything grand or daring in human thought or virtue, any reliance on the vast, the unknown; any presentiment, any extravagance of faith, the spiritualist adopts it as most in nature. The oriental mind has always tended to this largeness. Buddhism is an expression of it. The Buddhist †¦ is a Transcendentalist. †¦ Shall we say then that Transcendentalism is the Saturnalia or excess of Faith; the presentiment of a faith proper to man in his integrity, excessive only when his imperfect obedience hinders the satisfaction of his wish? † – Ralph Waldo Emerson’s lecture on â€Å"The Transcendentalist,† Works I: 317-320 15. â€Å"(Transcendentalism was) a blending of Platonic metaphysics and the Puritan spirit, of a philosophy and a character †¦ taking place at a definite time, in a specially fertilized soil, under particular conditions. † – H. C. Goddard, Studies in New England Transcendentalism, 1908. 16. â€Å"If I were a Bostonian, I think I would be a Transcendentalist. † – Charles Dickens in American Notes.

The Modern Reality Of The Cities - 750 Words

The modern reality of the cities is defined by complex urban, social and environmental problems. The era of intense urbanisation is associated with the phenomenon of the unregulated urban sprawl, globalisation and consumerism. Especially for the metropolis, for both, the developed and developing countries, there is overconcentration of the population in confined spaces, which leads to insufficient-available infrastructures of common utility, accommodation and transportation. This has become a fact that is causing problems with the living conditions, and enhances the negative environmental effects. Due to those problems, humanity tried to create a theoretical concept of the ‘ideal’ and an implement based on its achievement. This concept -known as utopia- was referring to ideal situations that are impossible or really hard to achieve. Unfortunately, in reality, utopianism promises a lot more than you can imagine. It aims to resolve long-lasting problems efficiently. 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